The Last Hunter-Gatherer Societies in Europe: A Historical Overview
Europe has a rich history of hunter-gatherer societies, with some groups persisting even after agriculture became the predominant way of life. One of the more well-known examples is the Viking society, which despite being the last in the traditional sense, still lived a nomadic lifestyle based on hunting and gathering. However, this article will explore the last widespread hunter-gatherer communities in Europe, focusing on the Mesolithic period and specific groups such as the Sami people and the Nenets people.
From Hunter-Gatherers to Farmers
The Mesolithic period in Europe saw the transition from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to agriculture, marking a significant shift in human societies. This period, which began around 12,000 BCE and ended by around 4000 BCE, was characterized by communities that relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants for subsistence. The rise of agricultural practices during the Neolithic period (around 9500-4000 BCE) led to the establishment of sedentary communities and the development of permanent settlements, effectively ending the era of widespread hunter-gatherer societies.
Scandinavia and the Last Hunter-Gatherers
Scandinavia, including Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, is a special case where hunter-gatherer groups may have persisted longer than the rest of Europe. These communities were highly adaptable, and as environmental and resource availability changed, they evolved their strategies for survival.
The Sami People
The Sami people, indigenous inhabitants of much of Northern Scandinavia, are often considered a candidate for the last hunter-gatherers in Europe. Traditional Sami culture included practices such as fishing, hunting, and gathering, which continued for a long period, even after the introduction of new forms of livelihood, such as reindeer herding.
Reindeer herding developed in Scandinavia in the Middle Ages, but this practice was not the primary livelihood for all Samis. Instead, many Samis maintained their hunting and gathering ways for an extended period. The transition to reindeer herding was gradual and not uniform across Sami communities, leading to a diverse cultural mix. It's challenging to pinpoint an exact date when the Sami completely gave up hunting and gathering, but it is clear that these practices remained significant to their cultural identity.
The Nenets People
The Nenets people, living in the most northeastern corner of Europe, offer another example of a group that continued to practice hunting and gathering until more recent times. The Nenets traditionally lived in a nomadic lifestyle, relying on hunting and gathering until large-scale reindeer herding emerged in the 18th century.
The transition to reindeer herding was a significant change for the Nenets, but this shift occurred relatively late, making them a candidate for the last significant hunter-gatherer society in Europe. Unlike the Sami, who maintained some hunter-gatherer practices along with herding, the Nenets' transition to reindeer herding was more abrupt, marking the end of their traditional lifestyle.
Conclusion
While the Viking society is often the go-to example for the last hunter-gatherer society in Europe, a more accurate picture reveals the persistence of hunter-gatherer practices in Scandinavia until much later. The Sami and Nenets people provide compelling examples of groups that maintained hunting and gathering practices for longer periods, adapting to changing environmental and societal conditions.
Understanding the last hunter-gatherer societies in Europe is crucial for comprehending the transition from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities. These societies played a vital role in the cultural and social development of Europe, leaving a lasting impact on contemporary indigenous cultures.